Processor Is The Heart Of The Computer

Processor Is The Heart Of The ComputerA micro transitor or processor is the heart of the figurer and it performs all the computational tasks, calculations and info affect etc. inside the electronic computer. Microprocessor is the brain of the computer. In the computers, the most popular emblem of the processor is the Intel Pentium chip and the Pentium 1V is the latest chip by Intel Corporation. The microprocessors stinker be classified based on the following features.Computer remembrance stores information temporarily for rapid retrieval. When most computer users refer to the term, they ar talking closely the main retention of the computer. This is likewise called the stochastic access remembering (or swot up for short). However, computer recollection chips of varying types are integrated into honest about every electronic device you screwing think of, including coffee machines, microwaves, net profit routers, and cell ph unitarys.2.0 Question 1Nowadays, the cost of the computer continues to drop dramatically while the exertion and efficiency of the strategy continue to rise equally dramatically. I am going to write about the evolution of microprocessor system.I will start from the 1st microprocessor Intel 4004 to Pantium4.Intel 4004The 4004 is the worlds off stupefy printing of all microprocessor. The 4004 was created at Intel with Ted Hoff and Federico Faggin as the trine designers. The 4004 provided a new tool to the world. Up to that time and semiconductors and ICs were built for a specific purpose. The 4004 was the first semiconductor device that provided, at the chip level, the functions of a computer. The 4004 contains the two basic architectural building blocks that are still set in todays microcomputers the arithmetic and logic unit and the control unit. The Intel 4004 ran at a measure speed of 108 kHz and contained 2300 transistors. By the time it was in production the clock speed was increased to 500kHz and later to 740kHz . It processed admitive information in 4 posts, but its guidances were 8 bits long. The 4004 addressed up to 1 Kb of course of instruction shop and up to 4 Kb of entropy retentiveness (as say entities). It had sixteen 4-bit (or eight 8-bit) general purpose registers, and an centering set containing 45 instructions.The 4004 family is in addition referred to as the MCS-4. Intel 8008The first 8-bit microprocessor, Intel 8008 (i8008) was released 5 months subsequently Intel 4004. The 8008 was available in two speed grades 500 KHz and 800 KHz. Because it took the central processor from 5 to 8 cycles to execute for each one instruction, the good rate of instruction execution was from 45,000 to 100,000 instructions per second for Intel 8008 and from 72,000 to 160,000 instruction per second for Intel 8088-1These derives game impinge on that the mainframe computer uses fast repositing and doesnt require wait states to access the memory. Although the good speed in instru ctions per second of the 8008 microprocessor roughtimes is lower than the rough-and-ready speed of the 4004 CPU, overall performance of the i8008 was greater due to faster effective speed of somewhat instructions, 8-bit architecture and more(prenominal) efficient instruction set. The 8008 had separate advantages over the 4004, for example the processor supported of 16 KB of memory (read-only memory and squeeze combined), the size of internal CPU stack was 7 levels in contrast to 3 level-stack for the i4004, and the Intel 8008 could handle interrupts.Intel 8008 microprocessor was utilize in Mark-8 computer, which is considered to be the first personal computer.Intel 8080The Intel 8080 was an early microprocessor designed and manufactured by Intel. The 8-bit CPU was released in April 1974 running at 2 megacycle, and is generally considered to be the first authentically usable microprocessor CPU design. It was employ in many early computers, forming the al-Qaida for machines running the CP/M in operation(p) system (the later, compatible, Zilog Z80processor would capitalize on this, CP/M becoming the dominant OS of the period much like MS-DOS for the PC a decade later). Shortly aft(prenominal) the 8080, the Motorola 6800competing design was introduced.The Intel 8080 was the successor to the Intel 8008 (with which it was accumulation language compatible because it used the same instruction set unquestionable by Computer Terminal Corporation). The 8080s large 40 pin immerse packaging permitted it to provide a 16-bit address pile and an 8-bit entropy bus. It had seven 8-bit registers (six of which could be combined into tercet 16-bit registers), a 16-bit stack pointer to memory (replacing the 8008s internal stack), and a 16-bit program counter.The 8080 had 256 I/O ports (allowing I/O devices to be connected without the conduct to allocate memory aloofness as is ask for memory mapped devices but at the expense of separate I/O instructions). Th e first single-board micro computer was built on the stand of the 8080Intel Pentium Intel Pentium microprocessor was the first x86 superscalar CPU. The processor include two pipe business aread integer units which could execute up to two integer instructions per CPU cycle. Redesigned Floating Point unit of measurement considerably purifyd performance of undirected-point operations and could execute up to 1 FP instruction per CPU cycle.Other enhancements to Pentium core includedTo improve entropy transfer rates the size of data bus was increased to 64 bits.At first Pentium processors featured separate 8 KB recruit and 8 KB data save ups. The size of both data and enrol L1 caches was doubled in Pentium processors with MMX technology.Intel Pentium CPU used branch prediction to improve effectiveness of pipeline architecture. Branch prediction was enhanced in Pentium MMX processors. numerous desktop Pentiums could knead in dual-processor systems.To reduce CPU power utilizatio n the core voltage was reduced on all Pentium MMX, and many meandering(a) and embedded Pentium processors.Intel manufactured desktop, mobile and embedded versions of Pentium microprocessors. Distinguishing between different versions of Pentiums is not always easy because desktop, mobile and/or embedded Pentiums often used the same discriminate offsprings. In some cases Pentium processors with the same part and S-spec numbers were offered as desktop and embedded, or mobile and embedded microprocessors.Later versions of Pentium processors Pentium MMX included 57 new instructions. These instructions could be used to speed up processing of multimedia and communication applications. Like the Pentium processors, the Pentium MMX CPUs were also produced in three different versions desktop, mobile and embedded processors.Pentium IIIntel Corporations successor to the Pentium Pro. The Pentium II great deal execute all the instructions of all the earlier members of the Intel 8086 process or family. thither are four versions targeted at different user markets. The Celeron is the simplest and cheapest. The standard Pentium II is aimed at mainstream home and business users. The Pentium II Xeon is intended for higher performance business servers. in that respect is also a mobile version of the Pentium II for use in portable computers. All versions of the Pentium II are incase on a special daughterboard that plugs into a card-edge processor slot on the motherboard. The daughterboard is enclosed within a rectangular black box called a Single Edge Contact (SEC) cartridge. The budget Celeron may be interchange as a card alone without the box. Consumer line Pentium IIs require a 242-pin slot called Slot 1. The Xeon uses a 330-pin slot called Slot 2. Intel refers to Slot 1 and Slot 2 as SEC-242 and SEC-330 in some of their technical documentation. The daughterboard has upgrade points for the Pentium II CPU itself plus various support chips and cache memory chips. All com ponents on the daughterboard are normally permanently soldered in place. antecedent generation Socket 7 motherboards drive outnot normally be upgraded to accept the Pentium II, so it is obligatory to install a new motherboard. All Pentium II processors founder multimedia Extensions (MMX) and integrated Level One and Level dickens cache controllers. extra features include dynamical Execution and Dual Independent Bus Architecture, with separate 64 bit system and cache busses. Pentium II is a superscalar CPU having about 7.5 million transistors. The first Pentium IIs produced were decree named Klamath. They were manufactured using a 0.35 micron process and supported clock rates of 233, 266, 300 and 333 MHz at a bus speed of 66 MHz secondment generation Pentium IIs, code named Deschutes, are made with a 0.25 micron process and support rates of 350, 400 and 450 MHz at a bus speed of 100 MHz.Pentium threesomeThe Pentium trio is a microprocessor designed by Intel as a successor to its Pentium II. The Pentium III is faster especially for applications create verbally to take advantage of its Katmai New Instructions (the code name for the Pentium III during development was Katmai). The 70 new computer instructions make it achievable to run 3-D, imaging, streaming moving-picture show, speech lore, and audio applications more quickly . In addition, the Pentium III offers clock speeds up to 800 MHz.The Katmai New Instructions are identical to the instructions optimized for multimedia applications called MMX and now included in most Pentiums. However, remote the MMX instruction set, the Katmai instructions support floating point units as considerably as integer calculations, a type of calculation often required when still or video images are modified for display. The Katmai instructions also support Single Instruction Multiple Data instructions. These allow a single instruction to cause data to be modified in multiple memory locations simultaneously, a kin d of parallel processing.For 3-D applications, ever-changing determine in parallel for a given 3-D thought performer that users enkindle see smoother and more realistic effects. industriousness developers can create effects that the checker instructions could not support, such as scenes with subtle and interlinking lighting. Animated effects and streaming video should also be less choppy for the viewer. The new instructions also specifically include some that will make speech recognition faster and more accurate and allow the creation of more complex audio effects.Pentium IVThe Pentium 4 is a seventh-generation x86 architecture microprocessor produced by Intel and is their first all-new CPU design since thePentium Pro of 1995. The original Pentium 4, codenamed Willamette, ran at 1.4 and 1.5 GHz and was released in November 2000. Unlike the Pentium II, Pentium III, and various Celerons, the architecture owed little to the Pentium Pro design, and was new from the build up.To the surprise of most industry observers, the Pentium 4 did not improve on the old P6 design in either of the normal two let on performance measures integer processing speed or floating-point performance. Instead, it sacrificed per-cycle performance in order to gain two things very high clockspeeds, and SSE performance. As is traditional with Intels flagship chips, the Pentium 4 also comes in a low-end Celeron version (often referred to as Celeron 4) and a high-end Xeon version intended for SMP configurations.The Pentium 4 performs much less work per cycle than other CPUs (such as the various Athlon or older Pentium III architectures) but the original design objective to sacrifice instructions per clock cycle in order to achieve a greater number of cycles per second.Above are the evolution of microprocessor, I just explain some of it, because at that place are too many types of microprocessor. Following the microprocessor above, it showing that microprocessors is get better and r un faster year by year.2.0 Question 2 storehouse is one of the most important things that is incorporated into computers, be it computers or PCs. There are various computer memory types installed, depending upon the actual deficiency for functioning and specifications of the system. The computer memory relates to the many devices and components that are responsible for storing data and applications on a passing or a permanent basis. It enables a person to retain the information that is stored on the computer. Without it, the processor would not be able to find a place which is needed to store the calculations and processes. There are different types of memory in a computer that are assigned a task of storing several kinds of data. Each has certain peculiarities and capacities. stochastic Access Memory ( get) break up is a location within the computer system which is responsible for stacking away data on a temporary basis, so that it can be promptly accessed by the processor. The i nformation stored in jam is typically loaded from the computers stark dish aerial, and includes data related to the operational system and certain applications. When the system is switched off, get up loses all the stored information. The data dust stored and can be retained only when the system is running.When the RAM gets full, the computer system is more likely to operate at a slow speed. The data can be retrieved in any random order. Generally, there are two types of RAM namely Static RAM (SRAM) and Dynamic RAM (DRAM). When many programs are running on the computer simultaneously, the practical(prenominal) memory allows the computer to search in RAM for memory portions which havent been utilized lately and copy them onto the knotty drive. This live up to frees up RAM space and enables the system to load different programs.RAM, or Random Access Memory, is volatile. This means that it only holds data while power is present. RAM changes constantly as the system operate, pr oviding the retentivity for all data required by the operating system and software. Because of the demands made by increasingly powerful operating systems and software, system RAM requirements have accelerated dramatically over time. For instance, at the shepherds crook of the millennium a typical computer may have only 128Mb of RAM in total, but in 2007 computers commonly ship with 2Gb of RAM installed, and may include graphics cards with their own additional 512Mb of RAM and more.Read Only Memory (ROM)Read only memories (ROMs) are used in computer systems to provide a permanent storage of program instructions. A read only memory (ROM) structure comprises a intercellular substance of intersecting bit lines and word lines with memory cells at select intersections. A read only memory (ROM) consists of an array of semiconductor devices (diodes, bipolar or field-effect transistors), which interconnect to store an array of binary data. A ROM basically consists of a memory array of pr ogrammed data and a decoder to select the data located at a desired address in the memory array. A ROM array of memory cells is defined by a number of transistors generally arranged in a gridiron pattern having a plurality of rows and columns. Each individual transistor of each memory cell of the ROM array is placed between a column of the series of columns and a voltage bus. A resistive ROM typically includes a planar array of parallel word lines, which is plumb line to and insulated from a planar array of parallel bit lines. A designated number of the memory cells in the ROM have a resistive, element connecting a node of one word line with a node of one bit line. Each memory cell, consisting of a single transistor per bit of storage, is hardware pre-programmed during the integrated circuit (IC) fabrication process and is capable of maintaining the stored data indefinitely. ROM memory is used to hold and make available data or code that will not be altered after IC manufacture. D ata or code is programmed into ROM memory during fabrication. The values stored within the ROM are read (i.e., output) by measuring a sense current flowing through each bit line from the memory cells of successive word lines. Three basic types of ROMs are mask-programmable ROM, eradicable programmable ROM (EPROM) and field-programmable ROM (PROM). save up collect is a kind of RAM which a computer system can access more responsively than it can in regular RAM. The central processing unit looks up in the cache memory before searching in the central memory storage area to determine the information it requires. This rule out the need for the system to search for information in larger and bigger memory storage areas, which in squirm leads to a faster extraction of data.Cache memory is random access memory (RAM) that a computer microprocessor can access more quickly than it can access regular RAM. As the microprocessor processes data, it looks first in the cache memory and if it finds t he data there, it does not have to do the more time-consuming reading of data from larger memory.Cache memory is sometimes described in levels of closeness and accessibility to the microprocessor. An L1 cache is on the same chip as the microprocessor. (For example, the PowerPC 601 processor has a 32 kilobyte level-1 cache built into its chip.) L2 is usually a separate atmospherics RAM (SRAM) chip. The main RAM is usually a dynamic RAM (DRAM) chip.In addition to cache memory, one can think of RAM itself as a cache of memory for hard disk storage since all of RAMs contents come from the hard disk initially when you turn your computer on and load the operating system (you are cargo it into RAM) and later as you start new applications and access new data. RAM can also contain a special area called a cache that contains the data most recently read in from the hard disk.Computer Hard DriveA hard disk is part of a unit, often called a disk drive, hard drive, or hard disk drive, those sto res and provides relatively quick access to large amounts of data on an electromagnetically charged surface or set of surfaces. Todays computers typically come with a hard disk that contains several billion bytes (gigabytes) of storage.A hard disk is really a set of stacked disks, each of which, like phonograph records, has data recorded electromagnetically in concentric circles or tracks on the disk. A head (something like a phonograph arm but in a relatively fixed position) records (writes) or reads the information on the tracks. Two heads, one on each side of a disk, read or write the data as the disk spins. Each read or write operation requires that data be located, which is an operation called a seek. (Data already in a disk cache, however, will be located more quickly.)A hard disk/drive unit comes with a set rotation speed varying from 4500 to 7200 rpm. Disk access time is thrifty in milliseconds. Although the physical location can be identified with cylinder, track, and sec tor locations, these are actually mapped to a logical block address (LBA) that kit and boodle with the larger address range on todays hard disks.Flash MemoryFlash memory (sometimes called flash RAM) is a type of constantly-powered non-volatile memory that can be erased and reprogrammed in units of memory called blocks. It is a variation of electrically effaceable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) which, unlike flash memory, is erased and rewritten at the byte level, which is slower than flash memory updating. Flash memory is often used to hold control code such as the basic input/output system (BIOS) in a personal computer. When BIOS needs to be changed (rewritten), the flash memory can be written to in block (rather than byte) sizes, making it easy to update. On the other hand, flash memory is not useful as random access memory (RAM) because RAM needs to be addressable at the byte (not the block) level.Flash memory gets its name because the microchip is organized so that a s ection of memory cells are erased in a single action or flash. The erasure is caused by Fowler-Nordheim tunnelling in which electrons pierce through a thin dielectric to remove an electronic charge from a floating gate associated with each memory cell. Intel offers a form of flash memory that holds two bits (rather than one) in each memory cell, thus doubling the capacity of memory without a corresponding increase in price.Flash memory is used in digital cellular phones, digital cameras, LAN switches, PC Cards for notebook computers, digital set-up boxes, embedded controllers, and other devices.These are just the common and main computer memory types which facilitate memory and data storage. However, there are many subtypes which are sorted out consort to the memory-related functionalities they perform and the requirements they serve.4.0 ConclusionIn the assignment, I have completed it by myself and I was doing research in internet, reference books and some of the notes that giving by lecturer. In question, I was explaining the evolution of the microprocessor, from the 1st generation to Pentium 4. I was choosing some of the microprocessors randomly and explain it with detail. Through the question, I know the microprocessors are get better year by year. In question 2, I was request to compare the various types of memories. So I have explained and compare in my question 2. For example RAM, ROM, Hard drive, cache and so on. I go steady a lot of knowledge through the assignment. It will be instrumental for my examination.